COVID-19, SARS And MERS: Are They Closely Related?

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Petrosillo, Nicola; Viceconte, Giulio; Ergonul, Onder; Ippolito, Giuseppe; Petersen, Eskild 

Abstract

Background

The 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is a new human coronavirus which is spreading with epidemic features in China and other Asian countries with cases reported worldwide. This novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) is associated with a respiratory illness that may cause severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Although related to the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), COVID-19 shows some peculiar pathogenetic, epidemiological and clinical features which have not been completely understood to date.

Objectives

We provide a review of the differences in terms of pathogenesis, epidemiology and clinical features between COVID-19, SARS and MERS.

Sources

The most recent literature in English language regarding COVID-19 has been reviewed and extracted data have been compared with the current scientific evidence about SARS and MERS epidemics.

Content

COVID-19 seems not to be very different from SARS regarding its clinical features. However, it has a fatality rate of 2.3%, lower than SARS (9.5%) and much lower than MERS (34.4%). It cannot be excluded that because of the COVID-19 less severe clinical picture it can spread in the community more easily than MERS and SARS. The actual basic reproductive number (R0) of COVID-19 (2-2.5) is still controversial. It is probably slightly higher than the R0 of SARS (1.7-1.9) and higher than MERS (<1),. The gastrointestinal route of transmission of SARS-CoV-2, which has been also assumed for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, cannot be ruled out and needs to be further investigated.

Implications

There is still much more to know about COVID-19, especially as concerns mortality and capacity of spreading on a pandemic level. Nonetheless, all of the lessons we learned in the past from SARS and MERS epidemics are the best cultural weapons to face this new global threat.

Keywords

Coronavirus, COVID-19, Emerging infections, MERS, SARS

Human Coronaviruses: General Features

Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences
2019

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Xin Li, Hayes K. H. Luk, Susanna K. P. Lau, Patrick C. Y. Woo

Abstract

Human coronaviruses (HCoVs), including HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-HKU1, are traditionally known to cause symptoms of common cold with only moderate clinical impact. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), on the other hand, have strike humans in the past two decades as highly fatal human pathogens leading to considerable mortality and economic loss. This article summaries the updates on the structure, genome organization, replication and clinical features of human coronaviruses. Recent studies also shed light upon the zoonotic origin of emerging human pathogens including SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, providing insight for future surveillance and intervention.

Keywords

Epidemiology, Genome, Human coronavirus, MERS, Replication, SARS, Structure

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus “MERS-CoV”: Current Knowledge Gaps

Paediatric Respiratory Reviews
Volume 16, Issue 3, June 2015, Pages 197-202

G. R. Banik, G. Khandaker, H. Rashid

Abstract

The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) that causes a severe lower respiratory tract infection in humans is now considered a pandemic threat to the Gulf region. Since its discovery in 2012, MERS-CoV has reached 23 countries affecting about 1100 people, including a dozen children, and claiming over 400 lives. Compared to SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), MERS-CoV appears to kill more people (40% versus 10%), more quickly, and is especially more severe in those with pre-existing medical conditions. Most MERS-CoV cases (>85%) reported thus far have a history of residence in, or travel to the Middle East. The current epidemiology is characterised by slow and sustained transmission with occasional sparks. The dromedary camel is the intermediate host of MERS-CoV, but the transmission cycle is not fully understood. In this current review, we have briefly summarised the latest information on the epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of MERS-CoV especially highlighting the knowledge gaps in its transmission dynamics, diagnosis and preventive strategy.

Keywords

Dromedary, MERS-CoV, Middle East, Respiratory tract infection, SARS, Transmission chain

Discovery of N-(benzo[1,2,3]triazol-1-yl)-N-(benzyl)acetamido)phenyl) carboxamides as (SARS-CoV) 3CLpro inhibitors...

Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters
Volume 23, Issue 22, 15 November 2013, Pages 6172-6177

Mark Turlington, Aspen Chun, Sakshi Tomar, Aimee Eggler, Valerie Grum-Tokars, Jon Jacobs, J. Scott Daniels, Eric Dawson, Adrian Saldanha, Peter Chase, Yahira M. Baez-Santos, Craig W. Lindsley, Peter Hodder, Andrew D. Mesecar, Shaun R. Stauffer

Abstract

Herein we report the discovery and SAR of a novel series of SARS-CoV 3CLpro inhibitors identified through the NIH Molecular Libraries Probe Production Centers Network (MLPCN). In addition to ML188, ML300 represents the second probe declared for 3CLpro from this collaborative effort. The X-ray structure of SARS-CoV 3CLpro bound with a ML300 analog highlights a unique induced-fit reorganization of the S2–S4 binding pockets leading to the first sub-micromolar noncovalent 3CLpro inhibitors retaining a single amide bond.

Keywords

3CLpro, Severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS, MERS, Coronavirus

The replication of a mouse adapted SARS-CoV in a mouse cell line stably expressing the murine SARS-CoV receptor mACE2 efficiently induces the expression of proinflammatory cytokines

Journal of Virological Methods
Volume 193, Issue 2, November 2013, Pages 639-646

Jose A. Regla-Nava, Jose M. Jimenez-Guardeño, Jose L. Nieto- Torres, Thomas M. Gallagher, Luis Enjuanes, Marta L. DeDiego

Abstract

Infection of conventional mice with a mouse adapted (MA15) severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV) reproduces many aspects of human SARS such as pathological changes in lung, viremia, neutrophilia, and lethality. However, established mouse cell lines highly susceptible to mouse-adapted SARS-CoV infection are not available. In this work, efficiently transfectable mouse cell lines stably expressing the murine SARS-CoV receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) have been generated. These cells yielded high SARS-CoV-MA15 titers and also served as excellent tools for plaque assays. In addition, in these cell lines, SARS-CoV-MA15 induced the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and IFN-β, mimicking what has been observed in experimental animal models infected with SARS-CoV and SARS patients. These cell lines are valuable tools to perform in vitro studies in a mouse cell system that reflects the species used for in vivo studies of SARS-CoV-MA15 pathogenesis.

Keywords

SARS, Coronavirus, Mouse adapted, Stably transformed murine cells, SARS-CoV receptor ACE2, Proinflammatory cytokines

Therapeutic Options for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) – possible lessons from a systematic review of SARS-CoV therapy

International Journal of Infectious Diseases
Volume 17, Issue 10, October 2013, Pages e792-e798

Hisham Momattin, Khurram Mohammed, Alimuddin Zumla, Ziad A. Memish, Jaffar A. Al-Tawfiq

Abstract

The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) has been detected in a number of countries in the Middle East and Europe with an apparently high mortality rate. It is phylogenetically related to the SARS coronavirus and has also been associated with severe respiratory illness as well as nosocomial transmission in healthcare settings. Current international recommendations do not support any specific therapies; however, there are a number of agents, which were used during the SARS epidemic of 2003. It is possible that these might be active against the related MERS coronavirus. We have reviewed the literature on the safety and efficacy of therapies used in patients with SARS with a view to their potential use in patients with MERS-CoV infections.

Keywords

MERS-CoV, Interferon, Ribavarin, SARS

Long-lived effector/central memory T-cell responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) S antigen in recovered SARS patients

Clinical Immunology
Volume 120, Issue 2, August 2006, Pages 171-178

Li-Tao Yang, Hui Peng, Zhao-Ling Zhu, Gang Li, Zi-Tong Huang, Zhi-Xin Zhao, Richard A. Koup, Robert T. Bailer, Chang-You Wu

Abstract

The role of cell-mediated immunity in human SARS-CoV infection is still not well understood. In this study, we found that memory T-cell responses against the spike (S) protein were persistent for more than 1 year after SARS-CoV infection by detecting the production of IFN-γ using ELISA and ELISpot assays. Flow cytometric analysis showed that both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were involved in cellular responses against SARS-CoV infection. Interestingly, most of SARS-CoV S-specific memory CD4+ T cells were central memory cells expressing CD45RO+ CCR7+ CD62L−. However, the majority of memory CD8+ T cells revealed effector memory phenotype expressing CD45RO− CCR7− CD62L−. Thus, our study provides the evidence that SARS-CoV infection in humans can induce cellular immune response that is persistent for a long period of time. These data may have an important implication in the possibility of designing effective vaccine against SARS-CoV infection, specifically in defining T-cell populations that are implicated in protective immunity.

Keywords

SARS, SARS-CoV, S protein, IFN-γ, Cellular immune response, Memory T cells

The design and application of DNA chips for early detection of SARS-CoV from clinical samples

Journal of Clinical Virology
Volume 33, Issue 2, June 2005, Pages 123-131

Yi-ming Zhou, Ren-quan Yang, Sheng-ce Tao, Ze Li, Qiong Zhang, Hua-fang Gao, Zhi-wei Zhang, Jian-yu Du, Pei-xuan Zhu, Li-li Ren, Liang Zhang, Dong Wang, Lan Guo, Yan-bin Wang, Yong Guo, Yan Zhang, Chuan-zan Zhao, Can Wang…Jing Cheng

Abstract

Background:

SARS coronavirus has been identified as the cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Few tests allow confirmation or exclusion of SARS within the first few days of infection. A gene chip is a useful tool for the study of microbial infections mainly for its capability of performing multi-target analysis in a single test.

Objectives:

Investigate the possibility of early detection of SARS virus from clinical samples using the gene chip-based method.

Study design:

We purified RNA from SARS-CoV obtained from routinely collected peripheral blood and sputum samples of 34 patients who had been identified as probable SARS patients by following the interim U.S. case definition. Four segments of the SARS-CoV were amplified using reverse transcription-nested PCR and the products examined using the 70-mer gene chips for SARS-CoV detection.

Results:

A blind-test of both peripheral blood and sputum specimens lead to the positive detection of SARS-CoV in 31 out of 34 patients. SARS-CoV was not found in peripheral blood or sputum specimens from three patients. Two of the 34 patients were only 3 days post-onset of symptoms and were subsequently confirmed to be SARS positive. Our results indicate that the gene chip-based molecular test is specific for SARS-CoV and allows early detection of patients with SARS with detection rate about 8% higher than the single PCR test when the sputum sample is available.

Keywords

SARS, Coronavirus, SARS-CoV, Early detection, Gene chip

Inactivation of the coronavirus that induces severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS-CoV

Journal of Virological Methods
Volume 121, Issue 1, October 2004, Pages 85-91

Miriam E.R. Darnella, Kanta Subbaraob, Stephen M. Feinstonea, Deborah R. Taylora

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a life-threatening disease caused by a novel coronavirus termed SARS-CoV. Due to the severity of this disease, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that manipulation of active viral cultures of SARS-CoV be performed in containment laboratories at biosafety level 3 (BSL3). The virus was inactivated by ultraviolet light (UV) at 254 nm, heat treatment of 65 °C or greater, alkaline (pH > 12) or acidic (pH < 3) conditions, formalin and glutaraldehyde treatments. We describe the kinetics of these efficient viral inactivation methods, which will allow research with SARS-CoV containing materials, that are rendered non-infectious, to be conducted at reduced safety levels.

Keywords

SARS, Coronavirus, Virus inactivation, Tissue culture

Evolution and Variation of the SARS-CoV Genome

Genomics, Proteomics & Bioinformatics
Volume 1, Issue 3, August 2003, Pages 216-225

Jianfei Hu, Jing Wang, Jing Xu, Wei Li, Yujun Han, Yan Li, Jia Ji, Jia Ye, Zhao Xu, Zizhang Zhang, Wei Wei, Songgang Li, Jun Wang, Jian Wang, Jun Yu, Huanming Yang.

Abstract

Knowledge of the evolution of pathogens is of great medical and biological significance to the prevention, diagnosis, and therapy of infectious diseases. In order to understand the origin and evolution of the SARS-CoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus), we collected complete genome sequences of all viruses available in GenBank, and made comparative analyses with the SARS-CoV. Genomic signature analysis demonstrates that the coronaviruses all take the TGTT as their richest tetranucleotide except the SARS-CoV. A detailed analysis of the forty-two complete SARS-CoV genome sequences revealed the existence of two distinct genotypes, and showed that these isolates could be classified into four groups. Our manual analysis of the BLASTN results demonstrates that the HE (hemagglutinin-esterase) gene exists in the SARS-CoV, and many mutations made it unfamiliar to us.

Key words

SARS, SARS-CoV, motif frequency profile, genomic signature, Chaos Game Representation, PUP

Complete Genome Sequences of the SARS-CoV: the BJ Group (Isolates BJ01-BJ04)

Genomics, Proteomics & Bioinformatics
Volume 1, Issue 3, August 2003, Pages 180-192

Shengli Bi, E’de Qin, Zuyuan Xu, Wei Li, Jing Wang, Yongwu Hu, Yong Liu, Shumin Duan, Jianfei Hu, Yujun Han, Jing Xu, Yan Li, Yao Yi, Yongdong Zhou, Wei Lin, Jie Wen, Hong Xu, Ruan Li, …Huanming Yang.

Abstract

Beijing has been one of the epicenters attacked most severely by the SARS-CoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus) since the first patient was diagnosed in one of the city’s hospitals. We now report complete genome sequences of the BJ Group, including four isolates (Isolates BJ01, BJ02, BJ03, and BJ04) of the SARS-CoV. It is remarkable that all members of the BJ Group share a common haplotype, consisting of seven loci that differentiate the group from other isolates published to date. Among 42 substitutions uniquely identified from the BJ group, 32 are non-synonymous changes at the amino acid level. Rooted phylogenetic trees, proposed on the basis of haplotypes and other sequence variations of SARS-CoV isolates from Canada, USA, Singapore, and China, gave rise to different paradigms but positioned the BJ Group, together with the newly discovered GD01 (GD-Ins29) in the same clade, followed by the H-U Group (from Hong Kong to USA) and the H-T Group (from Hong Kong to Toronto), leaving the SP Group (Singapore) more distant. This result appears to suggest a possible transmission path from Guangdong to Beijing/Hong Kong, then to other countries and regions.

Key words

SARS, SARS-CoV, haplotype, substitution, phylogeny